Raymond Cattell was an American and British psychologist. Cattell is well known for his 16 Personality Factor Model. This is utilized to to identify 16 different components of personality. It is a questionnaire that consists of 164 statements about yourself in which you are to indicate which is most accurate on the scale of (1) disagree (2) slightly disagree (3) niether agree nor disagree (4) slightly agree (5) agree. It takes most people around ten minutes to complete.
The results are based on a score of one to eight which provides a range of measurements to measures anxiety, emotional stability and behavioral problems. The questionaire provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals as an instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders, as well as help with prognosis and therapy planning.
With all personality tests, there are strengths and limitations. They are useful in categorizing behaviors, but a lot of psychologist also have their criticisms of it.
Strengths:
- Although theories are developed independently of each other, several different trait theorists have often arrived at a similar set of traits using factor analysis.
- Critics argue that traits do a poor job of predicting behavior in every situation. A counter to this argument is that trait theories provide a strong correlation for aggregate behaviors.
-Trait theories provide information about how individuals behave, but they don't explain why individuals behave this way.
Weaknesses:
- Since the results do a poor job of predicting behavior in every situation ,some psychologists argue that environmental factors are more influential in predicting behavior than traits are and other psychologists argue that a combination of traits and environmental factors influences behavior.
- Test requires self-reports in order to measure. Spending enough time observing someone else in a number of situations is needed in order for the test taker to accurately assess their own behaviors.
- Trait theories do not explain why an individual behaves in a certain way. They provide information about people and about which traits cause which behaviors, but no indication as to why these traits interact in the way that they do.
If self-reported personality tests explained which traits causes which behavior, then they would seem more accurate, and even help people to understand themselves better. They will have a better understanding of why they behave the way they do.
Viktor Frankl was an Austrian psychologist, neurologist and a Holocaust survivor as well. He is the founder of Logotherapy
The word Logotherapy is derived from “logos,” a Greek word that translates as “meaning,” and therapy, which is defined as treatment of an illness, condition or maladjustment. Logotherapy is the pursuit of that meaning for one’s life. The theory is founded on the belief that human nature is motivated by the search for a purpose in one's life.
Frank's theories was heavily influenced by his experiences in the Nazi concentration camp, where he experienced loss and suffering. Logo therapy was developed in the context of extreme suffering and depression, so it is not surprising that Frankl created this theory.
In the pursuit of meaning, Frankl recommends three courses of action in order to discover meaning:
1. The attitude we take to avoid suffering
2. Creating a work or doing deeds
3. The experience of value through art, love, beauty, etc.
Frankl believes that everything can be taken from a man but his freedom to choose the attitude he takes in any circumstance. One example of suffering is dealing with the death of a loved one. This is highlighted between the encounter with Frankl and an elderly man:
"Once, an elderly general practitioner consulted me because of his severe depression. He could not overcome the loss of his wife who had died two years before and whom he had loved above all else. Now how could I help him? What should I tell him? I refrained from telling him anything, but instead confronted him with a question, 'What would have happened, Doctor, if you had died first, and your wife would have had to survive you?:' 'Oh,' he said, 'for her this would have been terrible; how she would have suffered!' Whereupon I replied, 'You see, Doctor, such a suffering has been spared her, and it is you who have spared her this suffering; but now, you have to pay for it by surviving and mourning her.' He' said no word but shook my hand and calmly left the office."
— Viktor Frankl
Frankl believed that even a man who has lost all meaning can find meaning in life.This brings to mind the three major personality disorders proposed by Fromm: Necrophilia, malignant narcism, and incestuous symbiosis. Necrophilia literally means "love of death," so it is questionable how those who love death can find meaning in life, when they are suffering from syndrome of decay. What about narcissist who only love themselves? It is difficult for anyone suffering from these three major personality disorders to find meaning in life.
These individuals are psychologically damaged and may fail to find meaning of life.
Frankl beleived that those suffering from depression is facing tension between who they are and who they should be instead, and that those suffering from anxiety do not understand that they are dealing with responsibilities that were not fulfilled, and they are lacking meaning in life.
Lewis Goldberg is an America psychologist, a Senior Scientist at Oregon Research Institute and an Emeritus Professor at the University of Oregon.
Goldberg is widely known for his Five Factory Model theory or The Big Five Personality traits.
The five factor model is a tool for studying personality. It is a personality test that consist of 5 main dimensions that broadly describe human personality. Depending on the score of one's test, a person may score high or low on each of the 5 dimensions.
Those who score low on openness don't tend to want to explore, be creative, come up with new ideas, try new things, and the like familiarity. Those who score high are curious, imaginative, are open to new things and new ideas.
People who are low on conscientiousness are lazy, disorganized and are negligent. People who score high are opposite. They are hard working and progressive.
Extroverted individuals are lively, talkative and social. Introverts are loners, quiet and passive.
Those who are low on agreeableness are ruthless, critical, and suspicious. Those who are high on agreeableness are trusting, light-hearted and good natured.
People low on neuroticism are calm and unemotional, and those who are high on neuroticism are emotional, worried and self-concious.
There is no grey area, and that is a flaw since people can be an open individual with, aspects from both the low and high end of the scale. It is also questionable as to whether a test can predict future behavior of individuals since peoples' attitudes and way of thinking can change over time from early adolescence to late adulthood.
Alfred Adler was an Austrian medical Dr., a Psychotherapist, and founder of the school of Individual Psychology. He was the third child of a Jewish merchant and his wife. Adler wasn't in great health as a child. He didn't walk until four years of age because he had rickets, and he almost died at pneumonia at age five. He was outgoing, popular, and involved in school-work.
Like Erikson, Alfred also rejected Freud's emphasis on sex.
Acoording to Adler, it is normal for humans to develop feelings of inferiority. This allows us to strive for success. However, the inferiority complex does not motivate people. People with inferiority complex are convinced they are worthless, destined to fail, and they avoid challenges because they feel sure they will not succeed. Inferiority complex is the feeling of inadequacy that may result in aggressiveness or shyness as a compensation for feeling inferior. They may act in ways that make them appear superior.
According to Cushman's article, "Constructing the Self," white actors and audiences of the minstrel shows were able to admit "they had certain propensities and that they yearned to pursue them- for instance, loving music, relaxing, dancing, clowning, and sex." The article continues, stating that those behaviors were permitted for African Americans, but not for whites." These behaviors were mocked for the purpose of comedy and was not acceptable for the white bourgeoise during the Victorian era in America. The mockery on stage allowed the whites to act out what they could not have since it was socially unacceptable, and the masks of the black faces allowed them to "unknowingly identify with the characteristics of a complete social outcast, the most imperfect of characters... they were protected from detection (and self-awareness) by the ridicule of their own laughter."
The guise of inferiority was masked, since they refused to act on their wishes off the stage and without a mask; the wishes was only reserved for the inferior and social misfits.
Privilege, as discussed in Lois Weiss's article "Critical Bifocality and Circuits of Privilege: Expanding Critical
Ethnographic Theory and Design" highlights how feelings of inferiority harms society today. Privilege heightens the inferiority complex because it divides the school system, and widens inequality gaps between white children and black and brown children. The inferiority complex is causing marginalized children to feel that they will never be good enough to reach the doors of college.
W.E. Dubois researched the "negro problem," but his findings were made to be of little importance. Dubois was determined to show that the “Negro Problem was a symptom, and not a cause” of the racial order and economic order. The article states that “he had been hired to document the ‘pathology’” of the black race as if it were inherent to the black culture. Perhaps the assumption that African Americans are inherently indigent and criminal is a result of an inferiority complex. There is a vicious cycle stemming from this inferiority complex since there is a disposition for higher rates of illegal activity and illnesses in the black community because of the divided school system, divided social classes, and misuse of knowledge. In poor African American communities, teachers expect less from their students, academically than they would expect of others in communities with a higher socio-economic standing.
If students are put under the impression that they lack the resources to reach very far, then chances are they may feel discouraged and inferior to the perceived superior. This is why it is important to tell children that they can achieve anything, as long as they try their best. Deepening the inferiority complex is the media, which display images of what it superior in looks. The message given is that if you look a certain way, then you will be able to achieve what the models and actors possess. In reaction to this message follows extreme dieting, leading to anorexia or bulimia, bullying and extreme, unnecessary plastic surgeries to enhance already flawless features.
The inferiority complex can be seen in children from a young age, which can affect them for a large chunk of their lives. This was shown in an experiment by married couple and psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark who conducted a 1940 experiment using black dolls and white baby dolls. "The Doll Test" was done to study the psychologic effects of segregation on African American children. Children between the ages of three to seven, were asked to identify both the race of the dolls and which color doll they prefer. The results were disheartening. Most children chose the white doll, attributed positive words to it, and rejected the black doll nearly all of the time. This is due to an inferiority complex, that the white doll is better than the black doll. In fact, children said the black doll was "bad." The Clarks concluded that “prejudice, discrimination, and segregation” created a feeling of inferiority among African-American children and damaged their self-esteem.
Children aren't born with the inherent view of being inferior to others. First they learn the feelings of inferiority from their surroundings, and those whom are closest to them, such as caregivers or parents. They learn from society that the way they look is flawed. This video clearly illustrates the disheartening and damaging effects race inferiority complex has on children. From a young age, they are conditioned to see anything associated with "black" as bad. This is why some individuals go to great lengths to achieve beauty ideals associated with what is viewed as superior.
Weis, L., & Fine, M. (2012). Critical bifocality and circuits of privilege: Expanding critical ethnographic theory and design. Harvard Educational Review, 82(2), 173-201.
Cause of death: Not listed. Died at age 85 after an illness.
Carl Jung was a Swiss psychologist known for his theory of archetypes. He described himself as as an introverted child who enjoyed being left alone. Jung was his parent's 4th and only surviving child. Like Erich Fromm, Jung's mother also suffering from depression, and was usually away from home. Her mood became much better once the Jung's moved closer to her family.
Jung was a colleague of Freud, and agreed with much of his theories, even basing some on his own theories. However, Jung viewed the unconscious differently from Freud.
Just like Frued's Theory, Jung divided the human mind into three parts:
Jung thought the ego was the unconscious mind, but Freud thought of Id as the unconscious. The two's friendship, because of this disagreement, dissolved.
The ego consisted of the collective unconscious, and the personal unconscious.
The collective unconscious is our experience from memories shared with society as a species. It is a kind of knowledge that we are all born with. We are not conscious of it and it influences our behaviors and experiences.
Jung believed this is the reason why so many different cultures have the same myths, religion, art, symbols and recurring dreams. These are called archetypes. He also believed that humans are not born as "blank slates," and that we are born with predisposed memories that influence our behavior. This may be why we sometimes experience a gut feeling that we have been in the same place twice. Past events do influence our behavior, but they do not serve as markers for our actions all the time. For example, someone who was born into a normal, happy family will not necessarily grow up without psychopathological disorders.
Here are some examples of archetypes:
There are 4 main archetypes according to Jung. The archetypes are problematic since the archetype may not match the individual. Suppose a feminine man does not fit his archetype, nor does a masculine woman. Then is this not their true selves too? This contributes to rigid gender roles that society feel everyone must abide by. If one does not fit the expected archetype, then bias is able to flourish
Jung also rejected Freud's emphasis on sex for the sole source of human motivation. He based his theories on a more social model. During this time, Jung became interested in symbol and dreams and information from what he learned influenced his theories on psychology.
Jung is most famous for his development of 2 personality types, which is the introvert and extrovert.
Introverts prefer being alone, and their internal thoughts, dreams and feelings. They prefer familiar environments too. Extroverts are more outgoing, prefer to be in the company of others, and explore new activities.
""Few parents have the courage and independence to care more for their children’s happiness than for their success." - Erich Fromm
Erich Fromm was a German Psychoanalist who came from a very religious orthodox Jewish family, but later called himself an atheistic mystic. Fromm didn't have a very happy childhood because he was affected by his mother's depression and his father was temperamental. Fromm's Theories: Fromm believed that humans are "the freaks of the universe" because of our power to foresight, reason and use our imagination. He believed that our self-awareness contributes to feelings of loneliness, homelessness, and isolation and to escape these feelings, people strive to become one with other human beings and nature.
Fromm stated that freedom causes our burden and there are 3 escape mechanisms to decrease that burden: 1. Destructiveness 2. Authoritarianism 3. Conforminty
Conformity is the most common mechanism to help overcome anxiety of freedom.
The idea of conforming for power seems strange since if we are followers we become one with society and lose power among the masses. This means that there is only a collective identity because no one will break away from dogmas and create new ideas which will deviate from the leader. It does, however, seem logical that conforming to authority may decrease stress because inaction requires less effort. With this logic, people will be forced to conform with what they do not want to do. This occurs when children follow their parent's dreams instead of their own, when people choose to clothing they dislike, support a team because everyone else does, etc. They are only following that path of least resistance in order to keep others happy, while exposing themselves to a life of undesired choices. Fromm refers to blind acceptance as "anonymous authoritarianism." One difference between the two is that anonymous authoritarianism has no identifiable individual, like ' the president who has no identifiable singular authority'. Fromm claimed that under this authority, "nobody makes a demand, neither a person nor an idea nor a moral law." Since there is no single authority that is identifiable, nobody can rebel. Authoritarianism voids us of individualism, and we then fuse with the collective society. We then believe that our life is in the hands the more powerful. There are two authoritarian personalities: One that wants to control, and one that wants to be controlled. The authoritarians who want to be controlled is comparable to those who follow religion. Much of the way they behave and their moral compass is guided by their religious figure. They follow rules because it is easier to do, and it takes away choices which decreases the burden of freedom. The one who want to control become the leaders who develop totalitarianism above the ones who choose to follow.
Destructiveness, according to Fromm, results from isolation, powerlessness and alienation. As opposed to conformity, destructiveness is a mechanism used as an escape route to get away from other people. Fromm's 3 personality disorders:
These three proposed major personality disorders deviate from societal norms, meaning that there is not necessarily a pursue of power. Necrophilia, interestingly seem to be a result of too little freedom, and is in fact a result of restricted choice and too little power. Mentioned in a previous post about Erikson's psychosocial stages in relation to the changing self is a 16 year old boy whose mother restricted his choice when she forced him into incestuos acts against his will from the age of 7. The boy finally felt powerful and in control when he strangled her and sodomized the body. Necrophilia seem to be one outcome of destructiveness. When a person has died, the necrophile takes full control while not having to deal with the person's demands. They gain power, is in control, and though alienated from the living, not alienated from the dead because they are in company of the body A malignant narcissist is a lover of himself. These people are usually born into normal families, so their narcissism may be a result of trying to seek total control as a result of having had too little freedom. They are sadist, aggressive, and has antisocial personality disorder. They will befriend their victims, take advantage of them and are able to treat others however they feel while lacking a conscience in order to prove their superiority. They need people to love them in order for them to feel as if they have total control. The below video explains in detail:
Incestuous symbiosis is having an extreme independence on the 'mother' or mother surrogate. 'Mother' need not even be a human being. This personality disorder seems to be a result of possessing the enjoyment of control. It is yet another mechanism of escaping from too much freedom. Fromm stated: "By incestuous symbiosis is meant the tendency to stay tied to the mother and to her equivalents — blood, family, tribe — to fly from the unbearable weight of responsibility, of freedom, of awareness, and to be protected and loved in a state of certainty dependence that the individual pays for with the ceasing of his own human development." According to Kurt Danziger's "The Historical Formation of Selves," individuals learn how important the opinion of others are to their welfare and "seek to influence that opinion by appropriate conduct." He claimed that it "implies a process of social learning in which the self features as an object of social control." According to John Locke, parents are not to reward their children for specific behaviors, but "supply them with signs of esteem for their 'carriage' or style of good conduct." Locke thought is was the person and not their actions that form the appropriate object of social control, and self monitoring is also necessary for a political theory that considered society as "an aggregate of individuals." In the pursuit of power, it is important that we do hear the opinion of others, as we need to conform to what is seen as beneficial to everyone: their good opinion.
Danziger, K. (1997). The historical formation of selves. Self and identity: Fundamental issues, 137-159.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development show how one's personality changes at each stage during different developmental milestones in a person's life. At each stage, everyone is faced with conflict in which they must successfully overcome in order to proceed to the next stage and find a sense of self. His theory is different from Sigmund Freud's theory of development because Erikson's theory is based on a social model and not a sexual one. As we go through life, what happens if we do not learn to trust, become autonomous, find who we are and be creative and have integrity? We will ultimately lose sight of who we are and become withdrawn and have mostly regrets about how we lived our lives. Poor relationship with others because of mistrust earlier in life will cause a lack of social life. With our society changing speedily, role confusion for the American teenager is not uncommon. A result of this is bullying, which has gone rampant in schools since anyone that is minutely different deviates from what is conventionally accepted. According to Cushman's "Contructing the self, Constructing America," "it is also difficult to watch television for any length of time without seeing commercials that appeal to the unquestioned assumption that the viewer needs to, must be improved." With a partially developed mind, those in the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage at ages 13-21 may feel compelled to adhere to what is normal. This may stunt the development of the self by restricting the potential of the growth of identity. This will place a restriction on the choices they make, such as the choosing of a sexual orientation, the clothes they wear and the gender they choose to remain. The restriction of choice has psychologically damaging outcomes since it stifles the growth of the self.
It is extraordinarily important to allow freedom of choice during every stage of Erikson's Psychosocial development. Take for example, sited from the book which mentions Erich Fromm's 3 major personality disorders "Necrophilia: Forensic and Medico Legal Aspects " A 16 year old boy's mother restricted his choice when she forced him to engage in incestous acts with him because of her husband's sexual problems which prevented him from engaging in sex with her. From the boy was 7- years-old, the mother would masturbate him most of the time, perform oral sex on him, and she and the boy had sex twice a week and he performed oral sex upon her demand. He felt helpless because his mother dominated him. It is said in this book that the sexual abused and lack of power to exercise choice turned the boy into a necrophile. Two days before his 16th birthday, his mother was yelling at him and he became enraged and he pulled her out of the bathroom and shoved her upstairs. His mother instructed him to let go of her, but he continued to the bedroom and choked her to death and had anal and vaginal necrophilia. After an interview with the boy, he said that when he was having sex with her dead body, he felt that he was in a position of power after being dominated by her for so long. The boy's statement is as followed: I felt like I was out of control. My body was responding to the anger, all the anger that was bursting out from me. I shoved her into the bedroom; I put my hands around her neck and I got really excited. I choked her; I didn't say a word. After she was dead, I tore off her clothes. I was still angry. I had sex with her after she was dead. At the time I thought maybe she was just unconscious. I had an erection... it went through my mind that she was dead, since she was not moving. I felt in control of her now. She was in control of me all the time. I was like a toy. I felt i was getting her back by doing this. I did it to her." Here it is seen how the boy's lack of choice psychologically damaged him.It stunted his growth by affecting stage 4 of Erikson's stages: Industry vs. Inferiority. At the stage when the boy should have been learning to do things on his own, the mother forced him into situations he did not want. Children at the ages of 5-13 should develop industry by believing they are good enough as a result of performing tasks and mastering new skills both inside and out of the school setting. There is a strong probability that the boy did poorly in school because of his mother's abuse. He also did not tell his father because he was afraid the family would split. Instead of successfully fulfilling stage 4, he developed inferiority and only developed industry when he was in complete control, sodomizing and having sexual intercourse with the dead body. Because of his failure in stage 4, stage 5, Identity vs. Role confusion, will be affected since he will probably always be a misfit who has developed an insatiable want for power and control. Stage 6 will also be affected: Intimacy vs. Isolation. How can the boy develop a loving relationship with his intense drive for control. Necrophiliacs want total control, the kind of control they can achieve only with the dead. Throughout our lives, the self is always changing, but society and the people closest to us will affect how we change and grow. A negative disruption in any of Erikson's stages will affect us for the rest of our lives.
Consider Cushman's previously mentioned chapter, in which describes the history of African Americans. Collectively, the sense of inferiority of the changing self of this group caused conflict, and today role confusion is witnessed in some. Considered the "other," there is an effort to blend and conform, with skin bleaching and an abandonment of culture. According to stage 5, individuals may be confused with how they fit into society. Cushman's chapter claim there was a misconception that blacks loved the south, didn't wan to leave, and were considered subhumans severely lacking intelligence, and this was portrayed in the Minstrel shows by Europeans in blackface, with exaggerated features displaying large pink lips and a clownish appearance.
Portrayed in the Minstrel shows was the misuse of the english language by African Americans, using linguistic butchery, which resulted in malicious bouts of laughter. Under attack was also the clothes and "the compulsive but unsuccessful attempt to imitate the white man." The chapter states that the most prominent kind of imitation was the scrunity of how blacks did their hair, with painful straightening and bleaching to appear like whites. These scrutinies are comparable to telling someone they are not good enough, and will never be good enough despite their attempts, leading to shame and doubt, guilt, inferiority, role confusion, isolation, stagnation and despair.
Cushman, P. (1996). Constructing the self, constructing America: A cultural history of psychotherapy. Da Capo Press. Chapter 4: Healing through Self Domination. (Excerpt pp. 102-116)
Aggrawal, A. (n.d.). Necrophilia: Forensic and medico-legal aspects.
